Humanism and New Ideas of Politics
by Riccardo Piroddi
Tra la fine del XIV e l’inizio del XV secolo, l’Impero e il Papato attraversarono profonde crisi, favorendo l’emergere dell’Umanesimo, un movimento culturale che pose l’individuo al centro della conoscenza e della vita sociale. Nato in Italia, l’Umanesimo si diffuse in Europa, promuovendo un rinnovamento intellettuale basato sullo studio delle discipline umanistiche e sulla riscoperta della cultura classica. In politica, le Signorie sostituirono i Comuni e divennero centri di produzione culturale e amministrativa. L’Umanesimo politico si ispirò agli ideali dell’antichità, enfatizzando il valore della libertà civica e il ruolo dell’intellettuale nel governo. Pensatori come Salutati e Bruni difesero il modello repubblicano, mentre Machiavelli e Guicciardini analizzarono il rapporto tra potere, morale e interesse statale. Nel tempo, l’emergere dello Stato moderno portò alla progressiva separazione tra potere politico e religioso. La “Ragion di Stato” divenne un principio guida per i sovrani, che consolidarono il loro dominio al di là delle influenze ecclesiastiche. Questo processo segnò l’evoluzione delle istituzioni europee e l’affermazione di nuovi modelli di governo.
Between the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the two dominant medieval powers, the Empire and the Papacy, faced significant crises. Amidst this tumultuous backdrop, a transformative era began, known for its inception in Humanism and culminating in the Renaissance. This movement, which first blossomed in Italy, gradually spread throughout Europe, reshaping the cultural and intellectual landscape.
Humanism sparked a profound cultural rebirth, influencing all aspects of life—political systems, the arts, societal customs, and intellectual pursuits. Central to this intellectual revolution was the recognition of the historical nature of knowledge and the essential role of critical thinking. This secular approach to understanding positioned the individual at the heart of all inquiry and knowledge.
In contrast to the dominant Aristotelian philosophy of the previous century, the 15th century witnessed a resurgence of spiritualistic Platonism. This philosophical revival celebrated human dignity and embraced an optimistic view of human potential and qualities.
Humanism and “New Culture”
Humanism refers to the artistic and cultural movement that emerged in Italy and later spread throughout Europe, beginning with Francesco Petrarca (1305–1375). This intellectual current flourished from the late 14th century through the early 16th century. Humanism is marked by the revival of the studia humanitatis—disciplines such as arts, literature, and philosophy—which, although not directly practical, were pursued for the love of wisdom, fostering the spiritual development of humanity.
At its core, Humanism placed renewed emphasis on the individual, viewed as a “microcosm” capable of self-determination, thanks to the divine gift of reason. This philosophical perspective empowered individuals to see themselves as architects of their own destinies and key actors in shaping the course of history.
While not rejecting the significance of faith and religious experience, Humanism asserted the equal dignity and autonomy of earthly life in comparison to the supernatural. In this new cultural paradigm, humanity was no longer seen, as in the early medieval centuries, as mere “pilgrims” journeying toward heavenly happiness. Instead, individuals were recognized as actively engaged in the intellectual and moral improvement of their earthly existence, which became the central purpose of human experience.
The values tied to the material world, once condemned by medieval culture as temptations leading to sin and distractions from the righteous path, were reevaluated by humanists. Rather than being mortified, these values were embraced as opportunities for personal growth and intellectual exploration. Human reason, it was believed, could use these experiences to guide one’s life and expand knowledge.Humanism, in this sense, laid the intellectual groundwork for the development of the experimental method. This method, characterized by the empirical observation of natural phenomena, became central to the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries. The revival of classical antiquity—particularly the ideals of harmony and perfection found in Greek art, literature, and the political structures of ancient Rome—profoundly influenced the thinkers and cultural leaders of the 14th and 15th centuries, shaping both their ideas and actions.
Humanism and politics
The rise of the Lordships, which succeeded the Communes, played a pivotal role in the development of Humanism for several reasons. First, the Lordships were larger territorial entities compared to the Communes, and they established more complex bureaucratic, administrative, and diplomatic structures. These courts became vibrant centers of cultural and political debate, attracting artists, thinkers, writers, and other influential figures, thereby fostering intellectual growth and the creation of schools and academies within each court.
Secondly, the formation of the Communes and Lordships supported the emergence of a powerful bourgeois and commercial class, though this new social order struggled to find an appropriate ethical, political, or philosophical justification for its increasing influence.
Humanist Italy, particularly within the Lordships, sought inspiration from the classical world, adopting ideals of civil virtues, military honour, personal heroism, control over passions, and an appreciation for refined aesthetic sensibilities to craft a distinct identity that departed from medieval thought.
Humanist intellectuals, often affiliated with noble courts, were scholars who engaged in the philological study of ancient texts to determine their authenticity, origin, and historical context. A notable example is Lorenzo Valla, who famously exposed the Donation of Constantine as an 8th-century forgery, a document created to falsely support the papacy’s temporal claims.
The central idea in the thought and work of Coluccio Salutati (1331–1406) and Leonardo Bruni (1370–1444) was the role of the intellectual in promoting the welfare of the city, with a particular emphasis on protecting freedom. Both sought a political structure that could counter and resist excessive princely authority. Florence, under their influence, became a hub where the democratic ideal of humanity emerged—one based on the virtue of acting beyond personal interests for the greater good of the community.
However, this harmonious blend of political and ideological unity, which underpinned the humanist vision, soon encountered challenges. By the early 16th century, the rise of authoritarian political trends, even in Florence, highlighted two significant problems. First was the growing rift between public and private life; while humanist ideals thrived in private, they became contentious when applied to the public sphere in Florentine politics.
Second was the dilemma between “Brutus” and “Caesar”—a metaphor for the unresolved conflict between those who, defying an established order in defense of republican ideals, risk being labelled as tyrants while still striving to secure the prosperity of the state.
These tensions culminated in the works of two of the era’s greatest thinkers, Niccolò Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini. Their political philosophies addressed two crucial issues: the relationship between rulers and their subjects, and the distinction between republics and principalities. Additionally, they explored the tension between defining an ideal political life and the influence of historical contingencies unique to each nation.
The modern State: secularization of the State and “Reason of State”
By the 14th century, the national state began to emerge as the dominant political form in Europe. At this stage, the legitimacy of power often still rested on dynastic or divine investiture, albeit in a secularized form. The authority of monarchs was increasingly detached from ecclesiastical influence, marking a shift in political autonomy. The concept of “Reason of State,” as articulated by writers in the 16th and 17th centuries, highlighted how the dynastic interest in maintaining power was prioritized over moral, religious, and legal considerations.
The formation of the modern state was a crucial development in European history, introducing a new structure of governance that allowed for the emergence of competing class interests. Intellectuals—whether as jurists, politicians, or philosophers—often played a mediating role between these conflicting interests. During this period, shaped by intense political and religious conflicts, the foundational institutions and political concepts that would underpin modern European political and legal systems began to take shape.
Medieval state structures had little in common with the more centralized and organized notion of the state that would emerge in later centuries. The process of state formation varied significantly across Europe, with distinct trajectories in countries such as Spain, France, and England, each developing its own unique political orders.
